The Arch of Septimius Severus

Gentle Readers,

This blog post on one of the latest monuments in the Roman Forum was composed by classics gurus Emily Carville and Joana Sartor. Enjoy!

Lucius Septimius Severus reigned as Emperor of Rome from 193-211 CE. As emperor he took over all the roles of the republic such as, Tribune of the Plebs, Pontifex Maximus, General, Consul and Proconsul. During each of these important roles he was re-elected, which showed how he was favored by the people of Rome. While reigning in Rome, the “military man” Severus went to Parthia seeking military conquests. Around 197 A.D. he successfully defeated the empire’s capital, Ctesiphon. As a result of his victory, he and his sons (Caracalla and Geta) were awarded the Arch of Septimius Severus, as seen below, in 203 CE.

Arch of Septimius Severus (pronounced Se-VAY-rus) in the Roman Forum.

Located in the Roman Forum and on the triumphal route, this arch has a travertine and brick core, but is faced with marble giving it a more noble appearance. Even though it is now only a monument, originally a street ran along the center arch. On the spandrels we notice winged figures, one on each side, holding a trophy—representing the victory of Septimius Severus. In addition, the center arch’s keystone is a representation of Mars while the smaller arch’s keystone represents Bacchus and Hercules. The arch of Septimius Severus has four non-weight bearing composite columns; meaning they’re Ionic and Corinthian styled. However, because the columns are in fact non-weight bearing, there are pilasters that support the arch behind each column. Both the pilasters and the columns were made of proconnesian marble, again adding to the beauty of this gifted arch. Lastly, if you take a close look between the columns, you can see the story of the war.

Side View.

Close-up of panels describing the war against the Parthians.

In the south pier there is a staircase that leads to the attic and the roof. The dedicatory inscription located at the top of the arch where this hollow attic is lets us know who that arch was for and for what reason, it adds purpose to the arch. Dedicated to both Caesar Lucius Septimius Severus and his son Caesar Marcus Aurelius Antoninus (Caracalla), the arch describes these men in a high fashion, describing both their roles in Roman society, but also relates them to other people. Starting with Septimius Severus, he is the son of Marcus, which is important to note because the Romans were often seen in a certain light due to who their father was. He is described as "Pius" and the "Pater Patriae" which not only makes it known that his relationships with the people and gods are proper, but let's the Romans know that he is the father of the land. He is then compared to emperors Pertinax and Augustus which helps people understand the kind of emperor Septimius wanted to be seen as. Pertinax being one of the emperors of the five emperors and Augustus being the first and overall most important in building Rome. Parthicus and Adiabenicus are then mentioned which are the areas which Septimius conquered in Persia, and the main reason for this arch being built. Each job that he has taken over due to the republic of Rome disintegrating is listed with the times he has been re-elected for said job. This shows just how much power Septimius had in the society. These jobs include Pontifex Maximus, the highest priest in Rome, Tribune of the Plebs, General, Consul, and Proconsul. Most of these titles were also given to Septimius' son Marcus Aurelius Antonius as well. Originally the arch had been dedicated to Septimius and his two sons, Marcus and Geta, but in 212 CE. Marcus murdered Geta as voted on by the Senate and the inscription was changed. Before the murder the inscription read "P. Septimio L. Fil. Getae nobiliss Caesari" meaning Publius Septimius Geta son of Lucius most noble of the Caesar family. It was then changed to "Optimis fortissimisque principibus" meaning the best and most strong leaders (Septimius and Marcus). Finally, the inscription talks about how the arch was also awarded to these men for their virtues and restoring the republic to Rome. It is clear that Septimius and his sons did not in fact restore the republic to Rome due to the fact that they were emperors, but rather this is probably a figurative statement in which the emperors are trying to tie themselves to the old Roman republic.

Close-up of the inscription.

Overall, the arch was very impressive. Since there are only three surviving arches, one of them being Septimius’, there is a lot of historical value to it. Structurally the arch is similar to other triumphal arches, but it has many key differences which make it special to that time period and emperor. 

The Pantheon

Gentle Readers,

This blog post was written by the incomparable Nicole Curcio and Amanda Lee. 

The Pantheon seen today is one of Rome’s most widely known temples, dedicated pan theos, which means “all of the gods.” The Pantheon was built between 118 and 125 AD. The temple was originally built by Marcus Agrippa but then replaced by Domician after Agrippa’s pantheon was burned to the ground. Finally, Trajan started the Pantheon seen today, but Hadrian completed it. Hadrian almost never included his name on buildings he created, which is why today the Pantheon still has Marcus Agrippa’s name on it. (Rome: An Oxford Archeological Guide by Amanda Claridge).

Pantheon with Inscription, which Reads, "M. Agrippa...built this"

One of the most important architectural features in the Pantheon is the several arches used to support the famous dome. One of the major arches used is the relieving arch. There are many weak spots due to the structure of the dome, so they are used to distribute the weight of gravity evenly to keep the weight from focusing in one place and crumbling the dome. This is especially important considering that within the rotunda, there are eight places when stone is more fortified for the stressors of the dome.  This feature allows structures like the Pantheon to stay standing while keeping the general structure wanted as it does not change the dome shape and is not always clearly seen. Because of these reliving arches, the rotunda can be open without any other weight bearing structures inside of the rotunda except for the outside walls. Inside of the rotunda is extremely large and is equal in length and height, creating a perfect sphere. (Rome and Environs: An Archeological Guide by Filippo Coarelli)

The engineers of the Pantheon also dealt with the weight by changing the aggregate and making it lighter as you go up the dome. The first layer is made of travertine, then a mixture of tufa and travertine, and completed with pumice at the top. Other materials, such as concrete were used for the foundation of the Pantheon. For decorative effects, the rotunda was once coated in white stucco, which was used to resemble expensive marble. Other decorative effects were used such as bronze doors leading into the building, weighing up to twenty tons. The famous oculus is also the only source of natural light, which is larger than it seems at twenty-seven feet in diameter.

Famous Dome with the "Oculus," or "Eye," which lets light in.

The pediment front is supported on monolithic shafts made of Egyptian granite, bases and capitals made of white Greek (Pentelic) marble. These structures were once coated in stucco to give a marble effect without needing the use marble.

Reentrant architecture was seen in the rotunda of the Pantheon. This is when there are alternating circle and square decorum. Reentrant architecture was big in ancient roman architecture because it added to the contrasting décor of the structures. This approach at unique architecture was also seen in Trajan’s market and basilica’s found in the Roman Forum. The marble seen on the floor below is a mixture of white, red, yellow, and grey/black marble.

The floor of the Pantheon, utilizing re-entrant architecture technique with different colored marbles.

Because the Pantheon was built in a polytheistic religious era, there are statues of many gods throughout the temple and it had a pagan affiliation. Because of this, when Christianity became the religion in Rome, the Pantheon was then abandoned. The decree of 408 ordered temples to be reused, which is why the Pantheon is in the great state that it currently is. Despite the pagan affiliation, in 609 AD, the Pantheon was consecrated into a Christian church. It is now dedicated to VirginMary and all of the martyrs.

Interior of Pantheon with modern decoration.

The Colosseum

Gentle Readers,

This blog post was written by the estimable Jake Compagna and Sam Shippee. 

Introduction:

Rome is remembered mainly for the fantastic monuments and structures it has left behind, ones that continuously defied the expectations set by those who came before them, and last to this very day because of their immaculate designs. With this in mind, it’s easy to see why The Colosseum is considered one of the highest among these achievements. Not only is it beautiful in its architecture, but through the awesome skill of its builders and ingenuity of the emperors, the Romans were able to conceive one of the greatest sources of continuous entertainment the world has ever seen. To be more specific on this entertainment, there were many forms that took place within the walls of the Colosseum. Among the most regular were animal hunts and daily executions, some which would be done in gruesome artistic displays based around mythological scenes. In short, a form of ritualized death for the purpose of leisure was a favorite Roman pass time—lovely, right?

The Colosseum, or Flavian Amphitheater, Lit Romantically.

Beyond these events though, most would relate the Colosseum with the heavily romanticized idea of the gladiators, a staple of the Colosseum and other Roman amphitheatres. These figures belonged to a lower class in Roman society, and served as the main attractions in the pinnacle of these events based around entertainment through violence, fighting in what were essentially mock combat displays for the pleasure of the emperor and all who had come to watch. Despite the fact that these events did not occur as often as most imagine, it is still clear that the Romans found great import in these games, and obviously their success was the reason that any of the Colosseum’s features have become tropes in popular culture today. This raises the question of why this was so, which can easily be explained if one merely glances over the links of the Colosseum’s history to Rome’s association with conquering, boundless grandeur, and the even more philosophical and social notions the emperors addressed in constructing it.

Timeline:

The Colosseum was originally named the Flavian Amphitheater for the emperors that built/improved it, Emperors Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian. Construction of the Colosseum started around 70 AD by Vespasian and was finished by his son Titus roughly 10 years later. The building itself was built mostly from travertine, concrete, and marble and is the largest amphitheater ever created. Animals hunts and gladiator fights were the main events at the Colosseum and would take place in the sand covered center of the arena.

Cross-section of Seating.

Architectural Features.

The inaugural games were held within the first year of being completed and over 9,000 animals were killed during the first animal hunt. After the reign of Titus, his son, Domitian, further improved upon the Colosseum by adding extra seating and underground tunnels known as the hypogeum, which were used to house the animals and slaves that would be participating in the games. These tunnels were connected underground to buildings that would be used to train the gladiators how to fight, considering most of them started out as slaves from foreign lands.

From this point on, the Colosseum suffered a few damaging events. The upper wooden levels were destroyed by lightning in the early second century AD. And after those were repaired, a major earthquake caused further damage in 443. Gladiatorial fights ended around 435, while animal hunts lasted for about another century. Later in the medieval era, the inner bronze and outer marble were harvested for military usage while an earthquake destroyed much of the outer wall. This leaves us with our image of the Colosseum today, with all of its outer pockmarks and facade of travertine.

Bird's Eye View of the Coloseeum, Damaged by Earthquakes.

Summary:

Overall, the Colosseum as a whole was essential to Rome’s wellbeing in both a philosophical and cultural sense. From the gladiator fights to the elaborate lethal charades, all events within the Colosseum played a major role both in the stability of the empire in dealing with those deemed problems to society, and providing the people of the city entertainment with which to fill their day. On a deeper level,  most events held within the walls of the Colosseum were based heavily around the concept of death, more specifically, finding beauty and catharsis in the spray of blood and execution of both Rome’s criminals and exotic beasts. It was through this release of stress and the displays of bloodsport that the Romans were able to channel frustration, see justice done, and all at once be provided a commodity by the emperor to keep them satisfied. Therefore, the Colosseum itself serves twofold, not only aiding in enacting the laws of the empire, but also providing any emperor currently in power an easy way to curry favor with his people.

The Ravishing Tale of the Rostra

Gentle Readers,

Today's post was written by stalwart students Kyle Gelina and Conor Murphy. Public speaking is always important!

The Rostra (the broad, brick-faced platform at bottom)

The Rostra (or in Italian: Rostri) is a speaking platform from ancient Rome where senatorial class-members and other important figure-heads could speak out and be heard by the viewers and Senate of Rome. The Senate sat in the Curia across from the Comitium and Rostra in the Roman Forum, as shown in the picture labeled Rostra topographical view. The Rostra originally displayed ship beaks, which gave it its name rostra, which were represented as a sort of trophy as well as a memorial of the Romans many historical naval battles and victory over the Latins around 338 BC. On the southern rim of the Comitium, which served as a meeting place for the Romans to hold trials and other public events, lies the Rostra (see plan). 

The Comitium + Rostra Complex in the Forum.

The Rostra was rebuilt several times throughout its history. It was first rebuilt in the Republican period, then again in the Imperial period by Emperor Augustus. The Rostra was not a stranger from being moved throughout the forum, two great examples were from Caesar and Augustus where the Rostra was moved to face the temple of deified Julius Caesar (see image below labeled “Picture of the Rostra facing the Temple of Deified Julius Caesar”). The significance behind what we know about Augustus’ new Rostra was that instead of it originally facing the Curia (or towards the Senators) from the Republican period, is that now it would face more towards the forum, leaving a larger space for Roman spectators. This is a great symbolic way of showing a shift in power or concern of view from the Senate to the people.

The first to display this type of transition of power was Gaius Grachus, where on the Rostra he famously turned his back to the Curia and Senate to face the plebeian citizens around 122 BC. This inevitably led into a revolt which resulted in Gaius Grachus’ death, and being the first case of recorded violence within the Roman Forum. The Rostra therefore is a symbol of power to those that knew how to utilize public speaking and a potential symbol of what the typical ideals of an ancient Roman would have had. This is a great example of how a speaker utilized the Rostra and the power that it offered to attempt a juristic change which ultimately led to history being made.

Now not all uses of the Rostra catalyzed a gain of power as Antony’s use of it will show. Antony used the Rostra after a meeting with Octavian and Lepidus to display the severed head and right hand of Cicero according to Plutarch in his Antony, and what the Roman people “…saw was not so much the face of cicero as the image of Antony’s soul.” (Aicher, Rome Alive, Vol. 1). Since Cicero merely wrote a book that criticized Marcus Antony, the example of the power that Antony tried to grab, though in a brutal manner, concluded in him losing favor with the people.

Picture of the Rostra facing the Temple of the Deified Julius Caesar.

Whether the public displays of Julius Caesar rejecting a laurel crown to be Emperor or the display of trophies from wars and battles. The Rostra has both propelled (or jettisoned) public speakers and officials through the talk of Rome to catalyze either their ascension, or fallout, of power with the people in the Republic and Empire. The image of the trophy from when the Romans beat the Latins and used the ship beaks to make the Rostra gave it a Roman style in how it acted as a monument to their victory. Surely walking on their conquered enemies did not help to slack the speakers ambition or goals, as Gaius Grachus had shown. Though it can also tell a cautionary tale from how Antony lost favor in the eyes of at least some do to his excessively gruesome actions with the head and hand of Cicero. Throughout time the catalytic powers the Rostrum holds is unparalleled on account of its public staging and central location, as a result many political figures used it to try and gain power resulting in historical events being made.

Current Excavations of the Comitium and Rostra Complex.

Column of Trajan

Gentle Readers,

This blog post was written by all-stars Phin Anibal and Emma Bivona.

Trajan’s column is one of the most impressive pieces of architecture that remains from ancient Rome. This column is unique in its construction, its purpose and its over-all aesthetic. Archeologists still have many questions about the column but answers aren’t required to be able to appreciate the piece’s beauty and complexity.

Plan of Trajan's Forum.

The column was erected in 113 A.D. at North East end of Trajan’s forum to celebrate his victory over the Dacians. A plaque at its base explains that the height of the column, 100 Roman feet (approximately 99 feet by modern standards), marks that height of the earth that was excavated to build the forum. Some archeologists believe that part of Trajan’s motivations for marking the height of the excavated earth was to apologize or acknowledge that he had significantly modified the natural elements of Rome, altering the traditional layout of the city in order to build his market and forum. Though it is unknown whether it was Trajan’s intention to be laid to rest in the column, historians believe the purpose of the monument may have been not just to reflect the height of the destroyed hill, but also to hold the emperor once he was deceased as his urn was housed below it for some time. The special chamber where his urn once rested inside the base of the column is thought to the intended location for the emperor’s ashes.

Trajan's Column.

Though the column is fully decorated, illustrating an epic tale of Trajan’s virtus through his war victory, it is difficult to understand how an ancient Roman audience would have read the column. Though the lowest carved drums are easily interpreted in all their intricacies, the reliefs higher up the column are nearly impossible to distinguish. Additionally, in order to interpret the story chronologically, one would need to walk around the column while moving their gaze upwards. Considering that it would be just about impossible to see all of the elements of the column from any given point archeologists wonder how viewers were expected to interpret the intricate carvings of the column. However, it is possible that there would have been an account of the column’s story housed in the libraries on either sided of the column. If viewers were told the story through some other means the illustrations on the column could be appreciated in segments as the scene would have been understood without the need to follow every drum sequentially. The column could also be seen from both libraries, a basilica, and many of the surrounding areas. Some people believe that the prominent placement of the column was significant as an early form of propaganda meant to be seen by all of the roman citizens.

The column is strong representation of roman values and identity, thus given its content and location it would have been an effective source of propaganda. The column depicts the story of the Dacian wars that took place between 101 and 106 A.D. in modern Romania. A Trophy of Dacian shields, weapons, and armor is carved into the column’s base representing victory over the enemy. Although the Dacians are clearly the Roman’s adversaries they are depicted as brave and strong men. Acknowledging the Dacians as worthy adversaries elevates the impressive nature of Trajan’s victory over them as well as emphasizes roman values of strength, bravery and sacrifice.

Trophies from the Dacian War.

The column was at its time very much a piece of modern art, and that must be considered while standing in its impressive shadow. Previous to Trajan’s display of the monument, most emperors displayed their military achievements and overall greatness through arches, often with relief illustrations of winged victories, battle scenes, and trophy piles. Though Trajan’s column keeps with these themes discussed above in its own illustration, the presentation was completely novel to antiquity and made waves in ancient art culture, inspiring a future Marcus Aurelius to build his own column. Its reliefs are not cut scenes, like in arches, but a spiraling continuous narrative. This elaborate and unbroken presentation of the story was only possible through the innovative use of column instead of arch. The column was topped with a statue of Trajan himself for some time, but that was later replaced with one of Saint Peter. The change in command, along with the quality of the Luna marble Trajan used, ended up preserving the artwork. Saint Peter’s statue was used as a beacon for Christians on pilgrimage to the Vatican, and thus the column was conserved for religious purposes.  

Today, the work is viewed by travelers and students from all over the world, and books have documented all of the reliefs from bottom to top to allow modern citizens to “read” the illustrations from start to finish. Even with all of the modern technology and advances in architecture, it is an awe-inspiring monument that still inspired wonder and admiration for the emperor who built it.  `

For more information on Trajan’s Column Please consult Rome and Environs by Filippo Coarelli 

Circus Maximus and Chariot Racing

Gentle Readers,

This blog post was written by the always sporty and fabulous Renee Hall and Katie McCombs. Enjoy this ancient version of NASCAR!

Picture of the Large Area that is the Circus Maximus. WOW!

The Circus Maximus was the first and largest chariot racetrack of ancient Rome. It is located between the Aventine and Palatine hills. Each lap around the track is 1.2 kilometers, making an entire race of 7 laps 8.4 kilometers. The starting gate was a flat surface called the carceres or prisons. When they started the race they used a series of levers attached to a rope, this way chariots would leave the gate at the same time making it a fair race. The rise in the middle of the track, in which they raced around, is called the spina.  The race would go counterclockwise making it left hand turns. During the race there were turning points and end points called the matte. At the turning points, they would put down dolphins at one end and wooden eggs at the other. This marked the amount of laps they have taken.  They used eggs because the twin brothers Castor and Pollux were born out of an egg. Castor was the son of Tyndareus and Pollux was the son of Zeus.  They both were associated with horsemanship.  The dolphinswere used because Neptune was the god of sea.  

A Reconstruction of the Circus and its Seating.

Authors sitting on the hill where the seats would have been. So artsy!

Seating was placed all around the racetrack and consisted of 70 rows and could hold up to 150,000 people. The picture above shows where the seating would have been, but nothing of it is left (but see reconstruction above). Seating was subdivided into four sectors, from bottom to top, the ima, media, summa cavea, and a porticus in summa cavea. It was associated with social class with the poor being at the very top and wealthy at the bottom. The emperor was expected to come down from his home on the Palatine and sit with the people. If not, several people would laugh and yell at him and basically say he’s a jerk until he came down.  This represents that he acknowledged that he could only rule with the people's consent. This signifies how the Circus Maximus and races in general could bring the people together socially. Unlike the Colosseum, seating was not segregated by gender; men and women could be seated next to one another. Even so, it may have been that the poor sat in seating that was made of wood while the wealthier classes had seating that was made of marble and travertine towards the bottom. (ancient.eu by Mark Cartwright)

Medieval Tower standing in the Medieval Circus. Click here for more!

Most people think that gladiatorial combat was the most popular entertainment.  However, contrary to popular to belief, chariot racing was the most popular form of entertainment for the Romans.  Chariots were basically a platform with two wheels and reigns. Depending on the race, there were different types of chariots. There was biga, triga, and quadriga, which were 2, 3, or 4 horses per chariot. There were four common racing teams designated by color; green, blue, white, and red.  The green team was the most famous or popular.  Many people would bet money on races as well as shout defixiones or curses, mostly to the green team.  They would shout things such as “I hope green dies!”  For more on the Circus, go to vroma.org.